The Ottoman Army was the military land force of the Ottoman Empire after the country was reorganized along modern western European lines during the Tanzimat modernization period. In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary Corps, which had existed for centuries but was unable to adapt to modern military tactics and frequently rebelled. In its place, he established the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (Victorious Soldiers of Prophet Muhammad) army that same year. The Sultan continued his reform efforts by establishing modern institutions to support the army. In 1826, he established the Seraskerlik, equivalent to a modern Ministry of Defense. In 1827, the first military medical school, Imperial School of Medicine, was opened to train doctors and surgeons for the army. In 1834, Harbiye Military School was opened with the support of French military instructors to train officers for the army. On June 14, 1843, Sultan Abdülmecid changed the army's name to Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne (Royal Regular Soldiers). From this date onward, the army began to be known simply as the Nizami Ordu (Regular Army). In 1845, he established Kuleli Military High School, the first modern military high school, in the capital Istanbul. In 1848, the first military academy, Erkan-ı Harbiye Military Academy, was opened to train army staff officers and high-ranking officers, or pashas. The Crimean War was the first war effort in which the modern army took part in, proving itself as a decent force. The last reorganization occurred during the Second Constitutional Era. The uniforms of the modern army reflected the military uniforms of the western European countries who were the Ottoman army's principal advisors at the time. The Ottoman government considered adopting a Western-style headdress for all personnel within the army, but the fez was favoured as it was more suited to the postures of the Islamic ritual prayer. French-style uniform and court dress were common during the early stage of the Tanzimat period. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the Ottoman government searched for other role models, so German- and British-style uniforms became popular. During World War I, the officer uniforms were mainly based on those of the Ottoman's German allies.
== Establishment of the modern army == The shift from the Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century and began with the failed attempts of Selim III (r. 1789–1807) and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (1789–1808), continued through a period of Ottoman Military Reforms (1826–1858) and finally concluded during the reign of Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876–1909). As early as 1880, Abdul Hamid sought German assistance, which he secured two years later, culminating in the appointment of Lieutenant Colonel Otto Köhler. Although the consensus was that Abdul Hamid II favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, evidenced by his military budget cuts. The formation of the modern Ottoman army proved a slow process with period of inconsistent progression.
Modernization of the Imperial Ottoman Army and Navy
1842–1861
1861–1896
Units
Departments
==== Infantry Department ==== The Infantry Department, which occupied a significant position in the central military organization, was divided into four branches in the 1890 Askerî Salname and into a correspondence office (tahrirat kalemi) and four branches in the 1908 Devlet Salnamesi (State Yearbook). The administration of the department was chaired by a Müşir and consisted of two Birindji ferik and one Ferik. Within the offices and branches of the Infantry Department, the staff included:
Two Brigadier General (Mirliva) Two Colonel (Miralay) Two Lieutenant Colonel (Kaymakam) Two Major (Binbaşı) One Regimental Quartermaster (Alay Emini) The department's aides-de-camp (yaver) included officers at the ranks of one Senior Captain (Kol Aghassi), four Captains (Yüzbaşı), and three Lieutenants (Mülazım). In addition to the military ranks, civil servants served in the department with the following administrative grades: one Ulâ, eight Ulâ-i Sani, three Mütemayiz, and five Sâniye. The Infantry Department was responsible for all administrative procedures regarding the infantry, which formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army. The department maintained the identification registers (künye) of all infantry regiments, as well as the fire brigade and industrial regiments in Dersaadet (Istanbul), including both officers and private soldiers. Its duties included managing the promotion and assignment processes of commanders (ümerâ) and officers, maintaining their service registers (sicil), preparing reports (mazbata) for the awarding of officers or civil servants within the department for imperial submission, and executing these procedures upon the Sultan's decree. Furthermore, the department was tasked with examining the reports (layiha) submitted by inspectors concerning the infantry branch and preparing subsequent evaluations. It was also responsible for the admission of applicants to the Ottoman Military Academy and overseeing efforts to improve the training of existing students. Other responsibilities included reviewing books written on the infantry branch, recording submitted proposals, and examining reports regarding reforms in the uniforms, weaponry, and equipment of the infantry. The department prepared reform programs based on approved changes and implemented the decisions made by infantry commissions. Additionally, it monitored the application of existing laws during the recruitment process and oversaw the distribution of soldiers collected through the lottery system (kura) into their respective classes. The department also managed the identification registers of commanders, officers, and soldiers of the Redif (Reserve) and Müstahfız (Home Guard) forces, conducting inspections and directing the necessary procedures for their mobilisation.
==== Cavalry Department ==== The cavalry department, a key administrative body, was controlled by the General Staff, similar to the infantry department. The 1889 askerî salname shows that the department started with two branches, each managed by a ferik and a civilian. By 1908, the administrative framework had expanded to include a cavalry commission and two branches, staffed by two feriks and a high-ranking civil servant (ula-i sani). A significant part of this department was the "Çiftlikat-ı Hümayun", which managed various state-operated agricultural holdings. These included the Çifteler, Hamra, Sultan, Çukurova, and Veziriye farms. The Ottomans used these farms to meet the livestock needs of their cavalry. The department's personnel strength comprised a diverse mix of military and civilian ranks; specifically, its commissions and branches were staffed by one ferik, two miralays, one kaymakam, three majors, two kolağası, and a captain, alongside several civil servants holding the ranks of evvel-i sâniye, sâniye, and mütemayiz. The department's main administrative duty involved managing the detailed identification records, called 'künye', for all personnel in the cavalry and remount units, from high-ranking officers (ümerâ) to enlisted soldiers. Furthermore, the department was tasked with the oversight of trainees and personnel at the cavalry training institutions and the cavalry branch of the Ottoman Military Academy. Its executive duties extended to the preparation of official reports regarding promotions, retirement plans, and military decorations for both civilian and uniformed members of the branch. These recommendations were forwarded to the Serasker for assessment, and subsequent to the Sultan's issuance of imperial decrees, the department oversaw the ultimate implementation and documentation of these administrative measures. Furthermore, the department's purview encompassed logistics and procurement operations. It administered the operational accounts and animal breeding research of state-owned farms, thereby guaranteeing the availability of superior livestock for military applications. In the context of animal procurement, the department bore responsibility for upholding the integrity of the tendering process, thereby mitigating the potential for corruption. Additionally, it oversaw the supply of harnesses and related equipment for all military classes. In preparation for war or mobilisation, the department maintained detailed census records of privately owned animals to facilitate local requisitioning when necessary. The department's regulatory authority also included the vetting of training manuals and legal frameworks for both the regular (Nizamiye) cavalry and the Hamidiye light cavalry regiments.
While the strategic importance of cavalry diminished during the late 19th century, the organisational structure persisted through the transition into the early 20th century. By the empire's final years, the cavalry force was reorganised into three primary divisions (1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cavalry Divisions), which largely replaced the earlier Hamidiye formations after their 1910 dissolution. These modernised units were restructured into seven brigades and three independent regiments, primarily consisting of personnel recruited from Kurdish and rural Ottoman populations.
==== Artillery Department ==== Following the administrative shifts necessitated by the War of 1877–78, the Artillery Department underwent a significant reorganisation to centralise the management of the regular artillery corps. The department's executive leadership typically consisted of a brigadier general serving as the director, supported by an administrative staff of two additional brigadier generals, a major general, and a senior clerk. Structurally, the department was divided into two primary branches and a specialised clerical office. By 1908, the department's staffing reflected a hybrid military-civilian framework; its military personnel included a major general and a lieutenant colonel, while the civilian bureaucracy was composed of eight officials across various ranks, including mütemayiz (distinguished) and several second and third-class officials. The department was primarily responsible for the comprehensive personnel management of the artillery branch. This included maintaining identification registers (künye) for all personnel, ranging from regimental commanders and commissioned officers to enlisted soldiers. Beyond record-keeping, the department oversaw legal and professional rights, such as promotions, reassignments, retirements, and the issuance of decorations for both uniformed and civilian staff. Furthermore, it maintained the administrative files for students and faculty at artillery training schools, as well as the specialised records for master gunsmiths (tüfekçi ustaları) assigned to artillery regiments and battalions.
Operational and logistical oversight also constituted a core mandate of the department. It was tasked with reviewing inspection reports and formulating strategic proposals based on these findings. During both peacetime and mobilisation, the department monitored the inventory of weaponry, ammunition, and technical equipment, collaborating closely with commissions affiliated with the Artillery Inspectorate. It managed the requisition ledgers for production needs and coordinated the distribution of ordnance to active field armies. Additionally, the department held the authority to inspect military stockpiles directly or appoint expert officers to conduct technical audits. Throughout these operations, the Artillery Department functioned under the direct jurisdictional authority of the Chief of the General Staff.
Non-combatant branches
==== Engineering ==== Ottoman engineers had both offensive and defensive functions. They removed physical obstacles created by the enemy, repaired damaged bridges and facilities, and built bridges and other infrastructure to enable infantry operations. Engineers were also expected to create obstacles during retreats and to demolish infrastructure that could be used by the enemy. Each corps had an engineering battalion and each division had an engineering company.
==== Communication ==== The communication branch was established in 1882. Its designation was 'telegraph battalion' and its main function was to operate telegraphs. In 1910, the telephone was added to its functions. In 1911, wireless stations were added to the unit. A direct line between İzmir and Derne was established for the first time in 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War. Beginning in 1912 with the Balkan Wars, every corp level unit had a 'telegraph battalion.'
==== Medical ==== The medical branch does not have a precise date of origin. During 1908, the second constitutional period, its structure included doctors, surgeons, veterinarians, pharmacists, dentists, chemists, wound-dressers and nurses. They were organized by the Health Department of the Ministry of War.
==== Military bands ==== Since the early days of the Ottoman Army, each regiment has had its own band. In 1908, during the second constitutional period, there were 35 military bands in the capital. Each army had two bands. The “Imperial Band” (mızıka-i humayun) consisted of 90 musicians.
Hamidiye light cavalry
The Hamidiye was the first trained and organized Kurdish force within the Ottoman army, created by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1892. It was modeled after the Caucasian Cossack Regiments (i.e. the Persian Cossack Brigade) and tasked to patrol the Russo-Ottoman frontier. Despite its military appearance, organization and potential, the Hamidiye was in no way a cross-tribal force. Cavalrymen quickly found out that they could only be tried through a military court-martial, and were immune to civil administration. Realizing their immunity, they turned their forces into what some historians describe as "legalized robber brigades" as they stole grain, harvested fields, drove off herds, and openly stole from shopkeepers. In 1908, after the overthrow of the Sultan, the Hamidiye Cavalry was disbanded as an organized force but, as they were “tribal forces” before official recognition, they stayed as “tribal forces” after dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is described as a military disappointment and a failure because of its contribution to tribal feuds. However, recent research by Hidayet Kara suggests that the Hamidiye units were not independent groups but were integrated into the regular army structure, remaining under the control of high-ranking officers and the general staff to ensure regional security and integrate tribal forces into the state mechanism. The decision to disband was made after the 1908 revolution and all of the units returned to their tribes by August 17, 1910. Militarily, Ottoman General Staff stated conventional-style military discipline had always been a problem with these units. They were replaced by the reserve cavalry formations.
=== Paramilitary units === The Ottoman Gendarmerie was a unit which was sent on police duties among civilian populations. The Gendarmerie was a paramilitary unit because it was not included as part of the state's formal armed forces. It was established in 1903 and organized under infantry gendarmerie and the cavalry gendarmerie. The units were small, with the regiment being the largest. They were distributed across the administrative units under Valis. Their number changed with security needs. Historically, there was a Gendarmerie performing the same functions before 1903. Since the term Gendarmerie was found only in the Assignment Decrees published in the years following the Edict of Gülhane of 1839, it is assumed that the Gendarmerie organization was founded after that year, but the exact date of 'unit foundation' is not that date. There is also a manual, Asâkir-i Zaptiye Nizâmnâmesi, which was adopted on June 14, 1869, and is accepted as the foundation of the organization. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, Ottoman grand vizier Mehmed Said Pasha decided to establish a modern law enforcement organization, so a military mission was formed for the task. After the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Gendarmerie achieved great successes, particularly in Rumelia. In 1909, the Gendarmerie was affiliated with the Ministry of War and its name was changed to the Gendarmerie General Command (Ottoman Turkish: Umûm Jandarma Kumandanlığı). During World War One, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish, Gendarmerie units changed hands from Vali'es (a civilian authority) to the War Ministry (a military authority) to be a combatant branch. This change effectively made them combat units.
Organization
After the Second Constitutional Era, 1908, the Ottoman General Staff published the “Regulation on Military Organisation.” It was adopted on July 9, 1910. Army commands were replaced by “army inspectorates” whose main responsibilities were training and mobilization. The army was to be composed of three parts: the regular army (nizamiye), the reserve army (redif) and the home guard (müstahfız). The “corps” concept was established. Reserve divisions were to be combined into reserve corps and they were to be given artillery units. Units of the regular army would recruit soldiers through the sources of the army inspectorate they belonged to. The strengths of the Ottoman army were at the highest echelons of its rank structure. Unlike the British or the Germans, the Ottomans had no long service corps of professional non-commissioned officers, which was its weakest point.
=== Divisions === An infantry division was to be composed of three infantry regiments: a sharpshooter battalion, a field artillery regiment, and an army band. Divisions had operations, intelligence, judiciary, supplies, medical and veterinary departments.
=== Corps === Corps were composed of three divisions and other ancillary units. They had operations, personnel, judiciary, supplies, secretariat, veterinary, documentation, artillery, engineering and post divisions. Corps consist of 41,000 enlisted and 6,700 animals. During this period, not based on chronological order, the corps that were established were I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, XXV, Iraq Area, Halil, I Kaf., II Kaf., Hejaz
=== Fortified zones === Fortified zones had the same departments of divisions. They added documentation, artillery, engineering, communications and floodlight projectors. During this period the fortified zones that were established were Dardanelles, Bosporus, Chataldja, Adrianople, Smyrna, Erzurum, and Kars.
=== Army === Army headquarters had corps level departments and also infantry department, cavalry department and field gendarmerie department.
The 1st Army was formed on September 6, 1843. The 2nd Army was originally formed in 1873. The 3rd Army was originally formed in the Balkans and headquarters was at Salonica. The 4th Army was originally formed in Anatolia. The 5th Army was formed on March 24, 1915, and assigned the responsibility of defending the Dardanelles straits in World War I. The 6th Army was formed in 1877 and was stationed in Baghdad. The 7th Army was formed in 1877 and was stationed in Yemen. The 8th Army was formed during World War I. The 9th Army was formed during World War I.
=== Army Group === The Army Group developed late in World War I. The conflicts depleted the Army units, so Army Groups were used to compensate for the lost units and keep the remainder functioning. In August 1917, the Caucasus Army Group was established. It was a unification of the Second and Third Armies. In July 1917, the Yildirim Army Group was established. It was a unification of the Sixth and Seventh Armies. In June 1918, the Eastern Army Group was established. The unit was composed of whatever was left from the Caucasus Army Group united under the Third and Ninth Army.
General Staff
The General Staff was the group of officers who were responsible for the administrative, operational and logistical needs of the army. The general staff fulfilled the classic staff duties then in use by all major European powers and was staffed by trained general staff officers, who were selected and trained in staff procedures at the War Academy in Constantinople. After completion of the War Academy, graduates were advanced in grade over their non-graduate contemporaries and immediately assigned to key billets in the army. The staff was supervised by a chief of staff and was composed of various divisions, which specialized in a variety of military fields. The most influential staff division was the Operations Division. Staff provided bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate units. In the Ottoman Army, staff officers in all levels were combatants, a comparison to other armies that have enlisted personnel for specific tasks that were non-combatant. Before the Second Constitutional Era, the Sultan and his high-ranking staff officers performed the main planning and activity of the Ministry of War, which was established in 1826. During this time, the General Staff was a department within the Ministry of War. It performed the recruitment, reserves, judiciary and printing military charts. Ahmed Izzet Pasha, who became the chief of general staff on August 15, 1908, was aware of the urgent need of this institution to be reformed. Ahmed Izzet Pasha's work produced good results and he managed to provide a better and much more efficient structure for the General Staff. At the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, the General Staff was divided into seven departments. It formed the headquarters of Nazım Pasha, the acting head commander. When the war was lost, further changes were needed. These came with Enver Pasha, who on January 3, 1914, replaced Ahmed Izzet Pasha as both the minister of war and the chief of general staff. During the course of the World War, the Ottoman General Staff had seven departments: operations, intelligence, railroads, education, military history, personnel and documentation.
==== Force sustainment ==== LoCI was modeled on German organizational architecture. German organization was designed to operate at friendly rear areas. Neither Ottoman nor German LoCIs were staffed or equipped to do much more than coordinate logistics and transport supplies. The history of transportation starts with World War I. The World War I Ottoman logistics system was a pipeline that moved men and supplies from rear areas to forward stations and further distribution to front-line corps and infantry divisions. 279 officers, 119 doctors, and 12,279 men were assigned at the onset, but by April 14, 1915, few of these were available for point or area security. Under heavy insurgency, “protected logistics areas” were created for both convoys and for fixed facilities such as hospitals and magazines. The idea of protected logistics areas were carried from the Ottoman Classical Army. When plotted on a map, the protected logistic areas gave the heavy insurgency points. These were established along the Sivas-Erzurum corridor, which carried the bulk of the Third Army's supplies, and along the Trabzon-Erzurum corridor, which carried the army's magazine capacity. The weak road network within the Third Army area was rapidly deteriorating in 1914. Every province had civilian road workers and they were not enough to maintain the all-weather roads. The combatant units would not last more than couple days without the logistic support. Increased need required the army to build up its labor services, which did transfer resources from allocated units to combat to sustain the front. During World War I, European armies had ten logistic persons for one combatant.
The Ottoman labour services (amela taburu) were noncombatants, so they were unarmed, as in the other armies. The Ottoman Army had only six labour service battalions in 1914. In 1915, these were reorganized and expanded to 30 battalions of which 11 were deployed on the Erzincan-Erzurum-Hasankale-Tortum corridor. In 1915 the labour battalions were an essential and absolute requirement for the function of Third Army. Attrition wore the combat battalions down, but World War I was also hard on the non-combatant units. During 1916, at the high point of the Russian advance, the labor battalions were targeted. In the summer of 1916, the surviving 28 labor battalions were reorganized into 17 full strength battalions.
==== Chief of General Staff ==== The General Staff was organized under the Chief of General Staff.
Ahmed Izzet Pasha from August 15, 1908, to January 1, 1914 Enver Pasha from January 3, 1914, to October 4, 1918 Ahmed Izzet Pasha from October 4, 1918, to November 3, 1918 Cevat Pasha from November 3, 1918, to December 24, 1918 Fevzi Pasha from December 24, 1918, to May 14, 1919 Cevat Pasha from May 14, 1919, to August 2, 1919 Hâdî Pasha from August 2, 1919, to September 12, 1919 Fuad Pasha from September 12, 1919, to October 9, 1919 Cevat Pasha from October 9, 1919, to February 16, 1920 Shevket Turgut Pasha from February 16, 1920, to April 19, 1920 Nazif Pasha from April 19, 1920, to May 2, 1920 Hadi Pasha from May 2, 1920, to May 19, 1920
Ministry of War (War Department)
The apex of the Ottoman military hierarchy was the Ministry of War, which had been established in 1826 with the Auspicious Incident and which underwent several reorganizations during the Ottoman military reforms. Within the ministry, there were offices for procurement, combat arms, peacetime military affairs, mobilization, and promotions.
==== Special Organization ==== The Special Organization was a special forces unit established in 1913. It was an organization designed to establish insurgency and function as an intelligence service. Instigating insurgency, conducting espionage in foreign countries, and counterespionage inside the Ottoman Empire was its function between 1913 and 1918. The institutional origin, the reason given in the strategic document, was related to the unsatisfactory result of the First Balkan War. Its goal was the recovery of Edirne. This military organization had no precedent in Ottoman history, and it was directly developed out of the counterinsurgency experiences from Macedonia and the guerrilla experiences from Libya with a handful of Ottoman officers. The difference between the secret service of Abdul Hamid II was that it was directly linked to him and did not have an operational function. There is a controversy on burned intelligence documents of the special forces, which Shaw puts in 1914. On that day, Enver Pasha became war minister and destroyed Abdul Hamid's records and probably intelligence on him. The first field operator was Süleyman Askerî, who undertook the first mission and established the field structure. There is no actual evidence to support any claims of a dual-track structure (an operation with both political and military goals). The organization sub-management consisted of Atif Kamçil, Aziz Bey, Dr. Bahaeddin Şakir, and Dr. Nazım Bey. The staff was organized into four departments: the European Section headed by Arif Bey, the Caucasian Section headed by Captain Reza Bey, the Africa and Libya Section headed by Hüseyin Tosun Bey, and the Eastern Provinces Section headed by Dr. Sakir and Rueni Bey. The headquarters was on Nur-i Osmariiye Street in Istanbul.
==== War Council ==== The War Council was under the Ministry of War. Established by the high-ranking staff officers during wartime, the head of the council was the Sultan. After 1908, the Ministry of War became part of the Imperial Government. In 1908, the Ministry of War's high-ranking staff officers moved to the War Council. The War Council was abolished when Enver Pasha became the minister of war. The Sultan's group of high-ranking staff officers were silently removed from control. In its final form, the Ministry of War was a part of a civilian structure, which left the General Staff to a military establishment.
