In the 16th century, the Tsardom of Russia embarked on a campaign to expand the Russian frontier to the east. This effort continued until the 19th century under the Russian Empire, when the Imperial Russian Army succeeded in conquering all of Central Asia. The majority of this land became known as Russian Turkestan—the name "Turkestan" was used to refer to the area due to the fact that the vast majority of the population was inhabited by Turkic peoples, excluding the Tajiks, who are ethnolinguistically Iranian people; the ethnolinguistic map of the region has not changed significantly since then. Upon witnessing Russia's absorption of the various Central Asian realms, the British Empire sought to reinforce India, triggering the Great Game, which ended when both sides eventually designated Afghanistan as a neutral buffer zone. Although the Russian Empire collapsed during World War I, the Russian sphere of influence remained in what was Soviet Central Asia until 1991. This region now comprises Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan in the centre, Kyrgyzstan in the east, Tajikistan in the southeast, and Turkmenistan in the southwest; the Russian language is still recognized in some capacity in many of these countries.
== Background == When the Russians arrived the organized states were the Khanate of Khiva in the Oxus delta south of the Aral Sea, the Khanate of Bukhara along the Oxus and Zarafshan and the Khanate of Kokand based in the Ferghana Valley. Bokhara had borders with the other two and all three were surrounded by nomads which the Khanates tried to control and tax.
Siberia
Russians first came into contact with Central Asia when, in 1582–1639, Cossack adventurers made themselves masters of the Siberian forests. They did not expand south because they were seeking furs. The Siberian Cossacks were skilled in forest travel and knew little of the steppe and since the forest tribes were few and weak while the steppe nomads were numerous and warlike.
=== Up the Irtysh River === The Irtysh River rises in what is now China and flows northwest to the Russian base at Tobolsk (founded in 1587). It was thought possible to ascend this river and reach the riches of China and India. In 1654, Fyodor Baykov used this route to reach Peking. The main advance was made under Peter the Great. Some time before 1714 Colonel Bukhholts and 1,500 men went upriver to a "Lake Yamysh" and returned. In 1715, Bukhholts with 3,000 men and 1,500 soldiers went to Lake Yamysh again and started to build a fort. Since this was on the fringe of the Dzungar Khanate, the Dzungars drove them off. They retreated downriver and founded Omsk. In 1720, Ivan Likharev went upriver and founded Ust-Kamenogorsk. The Dzungars, having just been weakened by the Chinese, left them alone. Several other places were built on the Irtysh at about this time.
=== Around the southern Urals === In 1556 Russia conquered the Astrakhan Khanate on the north shore of the Caspian Sea. The surrounding area was held by the Nogai Horde. To the east of the Nogais were the Kazakhs and to the north, between the Volga and Urals, were the Bashkirs. Around this time some free Cossacks had established themselves on the Ural River. In 1602 they captured Konye-Urgench in Khivan territory. Returning laden with loot they were surrounded by the Khivans and slaughtered. A second expedition lost its way in the snow, starved, and the few survivors were enslaved by the Khivans. There seems to have been a third expedition which is ill-documented.
At the time of Peter the Great there was a major push southeast. In addition to the Irtysh expeditions above, there was the disastrous 1717 attempt to conquer Khiva. Following the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723) Russia briefly occupied the west side of the Caspian Sea. About 1734, another move was planned, which provoked the Bashkir War (1735–1740). Once Bashkiria was pacified, Russia's southeastern frontier was the Orenburg line roughly between the Urals and the Caspian Sea.
The Siberian line
By the late eighteenth century Russia held a line of forts roughly along the current Kazakhstan border, which is approximately the boundary between forest and steppe. For reference these forts (and foundation dates) were: Guryev (1645), Uralsk (1613), Orenburg (1743), Orsk (1735). Troitsk (1743), Petropavlovsk (1753), Omsk (1716), Pavlodar (1720), Semipalatinsk (1718), and Ust-Kamenogorsk (1720). Uralsk was an old settlement of free Cossacks. Orenburg, Orsk, and Troitsk were founded as a result of the Bashkir War about 1740 and this section was called the Orenburg line. Orenburg was long the base from which Russia watched and tried to control the Kazakh steppe. The four eastern forts were along the Irtysh River. After China conquered Xinjiang in 1759 both empires had a few border posts near the current border.
== Khivan campaign of 1717 == In 1713, reports reached Peter the Great that gold deposits had been discovered in Yarkand, deep in the Dzungar Khanate. A large expedition was sent the following year to build a fort line to the region, though by 1716 the Dzungars had almost completely wiped out the force through siege. A secondary force was sent under the leadership of Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky to the Khanate of Khiva in 1714, ostensibly to celebrate the accession of Shergazi Khan and establish trade relations, but in reality to find Yarkand and if it connected to the Caspian Sea. Cherkassky reported that there was a river, though a Khivan dam redirected from the Caspian to the Aral Sea. Cherkassky was dispatched by Peter again in 1716, this time to construct a series of forts leading to Yarkand, destroy the reported dam, supply Russian trade ships traveling to India, and convince the Khivan Khan to subjugate himself to Russia. The expedition set out with 6,100 men, though the force was greatly depleted to construct and garrison three forts along the Caspian, and after hundreds had fallen ill due to the cold. In 1717, the expedition set out for Khiva with only 3,500 men, late in the season when the steppe became extremely hot. While they sent an envoy to Shergazi Khan claiming the force was peaceful, the khan had been warned of their intentions by the Kalmyks. The khan sent a force of 20,000 soldiers to attack the expedition, though the Russians repulsed it. The khan then offered to negotiate peace, but stated that the Russians would need to split into five smaller groups and housed separately since Khiva could not support them all. Cherkassky accepted, and after the Russian force split apart they were massacred. Cherkassky and his retinue were beheaded in front of the khan. The forts on the Caspian were abandoned, along with any plans for future expeditions.
Conquest of the Kazakh Steppe
=== Subjugation of the Kazakh Khanate === The Kazakh Khanate was in a weak state following the death of Tauke Khan in 1715, causing central authority to devolve to the Khanate's three clan confederations called jüzes. The collapse of the Khanate, combined with raids from neighboring peoples and pressure from the Russian Empire caused the jüzes to seek Russian protection by becoming subjects, where they would swear fealty and pay tax to the Russian Empire. In 1730, the Khan of the Junior jüz, Abū'l-Khair Khan, sent an envoy to the Russian Empire formally requested subjugation of the Junior jüz to the Russian Empire. Empress Anna of Russia would accept this request, and soon after Alexey Ivanovich Tevkelev was sent to inform the jüz. Tevkelev met with the leaders of the Junior jüz on 10 October 1731, and officially incorporate the region into the Russian Empire. Soon after on December 15, 1731, Tevkelev and the leaders of the Junior jüz sent emissaries to Semeke Khan, leader of the Middle jüz, stating that he should be subjugated to the Russian Empire. Semeke Khan accepted, giving his oath of allegiance to the Empire. The leaders of the Senior jüz also attempted to become part of the Russian Empire, with Empress Anna of Russia confirming its admission in 1738. Despite formally claiming suzerainty over the three jüzes by 1738, Russia did not have complete control over the Kazakh Steppe and its people for much of the following century. While the Russian government viewed the oath as a strict submission of Kazakhs to the Emperor, Kazakhs saw the oath as a loose and practical way to get protection. After swearing fealty, Abū'l-Khair Khan gave hostages and pay yasak to the Russian Empire. However, many Kazakh elders did not give allegiance to the Russian Empire, the Junior jüz often would not give hostages, and the Middle and Senior jüzes gave neither tax nor hostages. Kazakh sultans would continue to engage in diplomacy with the Qing Empire well into the 1820s, the khan of the Middle jüz even offering his submission to the Qing Emperor in 1779. Additionally, the Senior jüz was so distant from the Russian Empire that it was difficult for the Russian Empire to incorporate it, with it even being subjugated by the Dzungar Khanate at one point. The Senior jüz was not fully subject to the Russian empire until 1846, around the conclusion of Kenesary's Rebellion (see below).
Russian consolidation
Russia began to attempt to administrate the Kazakh Steppe in 1786, with the creation of the Orenburg Frontier Commission, a body of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, the Commission only extended into the Junior jüz. Authority in the steppe continued to dissolve, leading to a rise in traditional violence and raids on Russian fortresses. This, combined with the Russian governments concern for trade routes through the Kazakh Steppe would lead to significant political changes in the Khanate. In 1822, the Regulations for the Siberian Kirgiz was introduced, formally declaring Kazakhs inorodtsy of the Russian Empire, restricting the movement of Kazakhs, and creating tiers of administrative units in the Middle jüz. The top level of administration were four okrugs ruled by sultans, centered on a Russian fort, and policed by Cossacks. In 1824 the Charter on the Orenburg Kyrgyz was put into effect, extending the control of the Orenburg Frontier Commission, dissolving the Junior jüz, and further restricting the transhumance of regional pastoralists. While the Kazakh aristocracy maintained their positions through the administrative reforms, they lost much of the power that they once held. Despite Russian hopes of introducing stability to the region, the new administrative systems were unable to administer their subjects. While these reforms temporarily dampened the region's internal issues, they continued to grow with time, with anti-Russian sentiment spreading across the steppe.
Kenesary's Rebellion
Kenesary Qasymuly was a Kazakh sultan who sought to reduce Russian influence on the Kazakh people, and formally establish himself as Khan. His revolt began in 1837, with the destruction of a Russian fort at Aqtau. For the next several years he and his followers would carry out periodic raids to capture livestock and hostages, which was met in turn by Cossack raids on Kazakhs. These retributive Russian raids were a source of food and supplies for local troops, but were largely ineffective at countering Kenesary and provoked resentment against the Russian Empire. Kenesary's raids also targeted Kazakhs, leading to them filing several petitions for Russian protection to the Orenburg Frontier Commission. Cossack troops found Kenesary's aul in February 1844, capturing several hundred people and Kenesary's senior wife. While the two parties exchanged prisoners the following year, Kenesary did not halt his raids. In Autumn 1844, an expeditionary force of Russian troops and Kazakhs was launched to find Kenesary, though the mission led to the destruction of an innocent aul and was considered a failure. Governor-General of Orenburg Vladimir Obruchev determined that the raids would not end the rebellion, and instead a series of fortresses should be constructed deep in the steppe. A modified version of the proposal was accepted, and two permanent forts were constructed on the Turgay and Irgiz rivers. Obruchev would successfully campaign for a third, even larger and more remote, fort to be constructed in 1847 at the mouth of the Syr Darya, named Fort Raim. Russian forces continued to probe deeper into the steppe in search of Kenesary during 1846, causing several Kazakh tribal leaders to submit to the Russian Empire. While Kenesary was killed by Kyrgyz early the following year, Russian forces would continue to march to the river Kapal to construct a fort. Despite crushing the rebellion, Russian control over the steppe remained loose.
Khivan campaign of 1839
Beginning in the early 1800s, several proposals were raised for a punitive expedition against the Khanate of Khiva for several perceived slights. Khivan forces often raided Russian caravans, attempted to extract tax from Kazakhs that the Russians considered their citizens, and would take Russians captive in border raids. In 1804, the governor of Orenburg proposed an expedition to the Khanate, though it was sidelined due to other priorities. A diplomatic mission was sent in 1819 and returned safely, though without any agreement to release Russian captives from the Khanate. In 1831, the head of the Orenburg Frontier Commission wrote a memorandum on the issue of Russian slaves, promoting foreign minister Karl Nesselrode to propose a punitive expedition. Newly appointed governor of Orenburg Vasily Perovsky was also personally outraged by Khivan enslavement of Russians, writing another memorandum to the Russian government where he stated that they must take up a civilizing mission against Khiva, similarly to other European powers. Tsar Nicholas I strongly agreed with Perovsky's memorandum, giving the governor power to take action against Khiva. In 1836, 350 Khivan merchants were detained outside of Orenburg and trade with Khiva was halted to the surprise of Khivan Khan Allah Kuli. Allah Kuli sent slaves back to the Russians in an attempt to negotiate, though these gestures were seen as delaying tactics by the Russians, and Perovsky had no interest in diplomacy. A committee composed of Perovsky, Nesselrode, Alexander Chernyshyov was formed in March 1839, which created a plan to replace the Khan with his younger brother, and modeled the expedition off of the colonial conquests other imperial powers were engaging in. The expedition was unprecedented in Russian military history, it had never before sent such a large force so deep into Central Asia across such harsh terrain. As a result, Perovsky greatly underestimated the number of camels needed for transportation to only be 1,712. While he eventually increased that estimate to a more realistic 12,000, Russian forces struggled to requisition camels from native Kazakhs in time. While the camels were able to carry most essential goods and provisions, they were not able to carry water in any sufficient quantity. Perovsky took the risk of launching the expedition in the harsh winter, when they would be able to drink from the snow. However, the camels were extremely vulnerable to cold and damp weather, a weakness that Russian forces attempted to mitigate by supplying the animals with leather jackets before setting out. The first of the Russian columns departed in November 1839, and it was not long before the expedition encountered issues. By mid-December a fifth of the camels were unfit to carry their loads, and about 2,000 had died. The column halted for a month to try and recover the camels' strength while the weather improved, though a break did not come. On December 13, the expedition encountered Khivan forces for the first and only time during the campaign, when a small Russian garrison stationed in Aq Bulaq was attacked by Khivian cavalry. The Khivans were driven off by musket and artillery fire with no loss to the garrison, and then attacked a Russian advance column who also managed to drive them off with little casualties. While these Khivan troops attempted to convince the Kazakh and Tatar camel drivers to defect, they remained loyal to the Russian army. However, when the main columns prepared to depart for the difficult journey from Aty-Yakshi to Aq Bulaq, a Kazakh crowd formed protesting the decision to advance through such difficult conditions, and crying that they should return to their homes. The crowd dispersed after two ringleaders of the protest were shot, and the column's advance continued in January. Camels began to die in the thousands, and only three weeks after leaving Aty-Yakshi, Perovsky ordered a retreat back to where they came from. The Khivans attempted to engage Russia forces in March, though then they arrived at Aq Bulaq they found the fortress abandoned. Russian forces began to return in July 1840, with 1,054 soldiers having died during the expedition.
The Syr Darya line
Establishment of Fort Raim
While the failure of the 1839 Khivan campaign ruled out long distance punitive expeditions as a tool of control against the southern Central Asians, Russian governors still felt the need to extend control south due to disruption of caravan traffic and challenges to their sovereignty over the Kazakhs. In the 1830s, the Khanate of Kokand began to expand northward, constructing fortresses to trade, and to collect zakat from Kazakh herds. Kenesary's Rebellion further disrupted Russian control in the region, and prompted a wave of fort construction in the inner Kazakh steppe. Fort Raim, built during the rebellion on the mouth of the Syr Darya at the Aral Sea, served to control the river and host expeditions. However, the fort's construction worsened Russian relations with Khiva and Kokand. Raiders from the Central Asian states attacked Russian forces, leading to a Russian punitive expedition that expelled a Khivan garrison. Fears of attacks did not lessen, with rumors emerging among Russian regional command of impending attacks on Fort Raim.
Capture of Ak-Mechet
By 1852, the Russian administration committed to suppressing Kokand's influence in the region, with the Tsar authorizing a line of forts be constructed to connect the Siberian line to the Syr Darya. The river was seen by the Russian government as a solid line on which to establish a new frontier, and efforts were made to move Russian troops to a sheltered area upstream. However, the commander of Ak-Mechet, the Kokand Khanate's most influential and critical northern stronghold, warned a Russian surveying party that advancing further along the Syr Darya would be met with force. Vasily Perovsky, serving once again as the Military Governor of Orenburg, responded to these threats by dispatching an expedition to Ak-Mechet under Colonel Blaramberg. The goal of the expedition was to survey Ak-Mechet and possibly destroy the fort under certain circumstances. Blaramberg attempted to attack the fortress upon reaching it, but found his weapons were unable to penetrate the fortress, and retreated at a loss of several men killed and wounded.
Russian leadership up to the Tsar himself were alarmed by the failure of Blaramberg's expedition, and resolved to attack again when victory would be certain. In January 1853, the Tsar accepted a plan by Perovsky wherein four forts would be built on the Syr Darya river to establish a stronger, more advanced frontier from which they could influence the southern khanates and protect their territory. While the forts were primarily strategic, Perovsky optimistically argued that protecting caravans and increased tax on Kazakhs would offset the project's enormous cost. One of the fortresses would be built over Ak-Mechet, necessitating a military operation that would also restore Russian prestige after the failure of last year. Perovky's force departed June of that year. A flotilla and Kazakh camel caravan was used to transport supplies and troops along the Syr-Darya, Kazakhs also providing crucial service as reconnaissance and guides. Despite the march to Ak-Mechet comprising hot, barren terrain with large swarms of mosquitos and horse-flies, the expedition suffered no significant losses. The siege was conducted extremely cautiously, stretching out over several weeks as extensive mines were dug to avoid a bloody frontal assault. The mines were sprung on the 28th, and after a short Russian assault the fort was captured. While the Russians suffered few casualties, a large majority of the Kokandi defenders were killed, most survivors being women and children. Khudayar Khan, who had only recently regained power after a coup, lost much of his legitimacy because of the defeat. He sent two expeditions to recapture the fort soon after, both of which were strongly repulsed. Kokand continued to launch small attacks and raids well into the 1860s. The capture of the fort was a seminal point in the Russian conquest of Central Asia. It was the first settlement to be captured by Russia, and the first settlement to have its name Russified, being renamed to Fort Perovsky in honor of Vasily Perovsky.
Establishment of the line
In September 1853, three fortresses named Forts No. 1, 2, and 3 were constructed between Fort Raim and Fort Perovsky, though Fort No. 3 was quickly abandoned. Fort Raim was also abandoned in 1855 due to its redundancy. The forts were intended to become flourishing settlements, serving as military strongholds, trade hubs, and intelligence centers. Fort Perovsky was rebuilt from 1858–1859, though it and the other fortresses suffered from extremely poor building quality, compounded by harsh weather. Logs had to be imported from north of Orenburg, and quickly rotted. As such, many of the buildings were built from mudbricks, and only lasted for a few years before crumbling. By 1857, Fort Perovsky was surrounded by temporary structures, and inside was filled with collapsed buildings. Sustaining the fortresses was also extremely challenging. Despite hopes to irrigate the land and encourage nomadic Kazakhs to become farmers, grain could not be grown at a rate to sustain even the garrisons, and food had to be imported or purchased at high prices. The fortresses did not become significant centers of trade, located outside of the Russian customs boundary in the depopulated steppe. Little attempt was made at all to establish a civilian administration, with most efforts focused on collecting intelligence in the region. Russia often questioned cross-country traders to gather generally reliable and timely information on Kokand's military preparations, though information on regional politics tended to be vague. Efforts to curb raids were less effective, groups often successfully captured livestock and caravans, despite punitive expeditions sent out by Russia.
=== Expansion of the line === After Russia's defeat in the Crimean War and significant victories in the Caucasian War, the focus of Russian government turned to the security of the Central Asian front. In 1848, a proposal was raised to connect the Syr Darya line to the Siberian line by advancing south and capturing Tashkent, ideally establishing a solid border with Kokand and ending the southern raids. After extensive surveys of the Chu region, a version of this plan in which the Siberian line would be expanded westwards by capturing Kokandi fortresses was approved by the Tsar. There was significant debate on what to do with the Syr Darya line in light of the advances, with proposals being raised within committees and via memorandums. Ideas included maintaining the status quo, cutting their losses and abandoning the Syr Darya line entirely, expanding along the fertile Amu Darya to supply the Syr Darya line, and advancing as far as Tashkent. These plans focused on cutting expenses and increasing security, though the best way to do this was highly disputed.
Eastern approach to Central Asia
In 1847–1864, the Russians crossed the eastern Kazakh steppe and built a line of forts in the irrigated area along the northern Kyrgyz border. In 1864–1868, they moved south, conquered Tashkent and Samarkand, confined the Khanate of Kokand to the Ferghana valley and made Bokhara a protectorate. This was the main event of the conquest. Our sources do not say why an eastern approach was chosen, but an obvious guess is that irrigation made it possible to move armies without crossing steppe or desert. This was important when transport required grass-fed horses and camels. We are not told how Russia supplied an army this far east, or if this was a problem. It is not clear why a forward policy was now adopted. It seems that different officials had different opinions and much was decided by local commanders and the luck of the battlefield. All sources report Russian victories over greatly superior forces with kill ratios approaching ten to one. Even if enemy numbers are exaggerated it seems clear that Russian weapons and tactics were now superior to the traditional Asian armies that they faced. All sources mention breechloading rifles without further explanation. Berdan rifles are mentioned without giving numbers. MacGahan, in his account of the Khivan campaign, contrasts explosive artillery to traditional cannonballs. Artillery and rifles could often keep Russian soldiers out of reach of hand weapons.
Advance from the northeast
The eastern end of the Kazakh steppe was called Semirechye by the Russians. South of this, along the modern Kyrgyz border, the Tien Shan mountains extend about 640 km (400 mi) to the west. Water coming down from the mountains provides irrigation for a line of towns and supports a natural caravan route. South of this mountain projection is the densely populated Ferghana Valley ruled by the Khanate of Kokand. South of Ferghana is the Turkestan Range and then the land the ancients called Bactria. West of the northern range is the great city of Tashkent and west of the southern range is Tamerlane's old capital Samarkand.
In 1847, Kopal was founded southeast of Lake Balkash. In 1852 Russia crossed the Ili River and met Kazakh resistance and next year destroyed the Kazakh fort of Tuchubek. In 1854, they founded Fort Vernoye (Almaty) within sight of the mountains. Vernoye is about 800 km (500 mi) south of the Siberian Line. Eight years later, in 1862, Russia took Tokmak (Tokmok) and Pishpek (Bishkek). Russia placed a force at the Kastek pass to block a counterattack from Kokand. The Kokandis used a different pass, attacked an intermediate post, Kolpakovsky rushed from Kastek and completely defeated a much larger army. In 1864, Chernayev took command of the east, led 2500 men from Siberia, and captured Aulie-Ata (Taraz). Russia was now near the west end of the mountain range and about halfway between Vernoye and Ak-Mechet. In 1851, Russia and China signed the Treaty of Kulja to regulate trade along what was becoming a new border. In 1864, they signed the Treaty of Tarbagatai which approximately established the current Chinese-Kazakh border. The Chinese thereby renounced any claims to the Kazakh steppe, to the extent that they had any.
Advance up the Syr Darya
Meanwhile, Russia was advancing southeast up the Syr Darya from Ak-Mechet. In 1859, Dzhulek was taken from Kokand. In 1861, a Russian fort was built at Dzhulek. In September 1861, Alexander Debu led an army from Fort Dzhulek to Yany-Kurgan (present day Zhanakorgan). Following a quick siege, Debu captured and destroyed Yany-Kurgan. The destruction of Yany-Kurgan deprived the Kokand of a strategic lodgement in the region. The small, but significant, siege opened a pathway for the Russians to launch more campaigns and capture more cities. In 1862, Chernyaev reconnoitered the river as far as Hazrat-i-Turkestan and captured the small oasis of Suzak about 105 km (65 mi) east of the river. In June 1864 Veryovkin took Hazrat-i-Turkestan from Kokand. He hastened surrender by bombarding the famous mausoleum. Two Russian columns met in the 240 km (150 mi) gap between Hazrat and Aulie-Ata, thereby completing the Syr-Darya Line.
Conquest of Kokand and Bukhara
Battle of Ican
In 1864, Alimkul tried to raid the territory of the Russians and recapture the occupied lands, but at Ican his army got in front of a hundred Cossacks. Alimkul's attempts to defeat the small Cossack army failed. Despite suffering heavy casualties, the Cossacks managed to break through Alimkul's encirclement and make it to safety. As a result of this failure, Alimkul retreated.
Occupation of Tashkent
About 80 km (50 mi) south of the new line was Chimkent (Shymkent) which belonged to Kokand. He failed to take Shymkent in his first attack and retreated, but was able to take it in his next attack. On 15 October, he suddenly appeared before Tashkent, failed to take it by sudden assault and retreated to Chimkent. Kokand then tried and failed to re-take Hazrat-i-Turkestan. In April 1865, Chernayev made a second attack on Tashkent. Unable to take such a large place (it was said to have a garrison of 30,000) he occupied the town's water supply at Niazbek. The Kokand Regent Alim Kuli arrived with 6,000 more troops and almost defeated the Russians, but was killed in the fight. The inhabitants now offered to submit to the Emir of Bokhara in return for assistance. About 21 June, a party of Bokharans entered the town and more Bokharan troops were on the move. In this critical position, Chernayev determined to risk a storm. At 3 a.m. on 27 June, Captain Abramov scaled the wall and opened the Kamelan Gate, advanced along the wall and opened a second gate while another party took the Kokand gate. That day and the next there was constant street fighting, but on the morning of the 29th a deputation of elders offered surrender.